Weapons of War - Machine Guns

The machine gun, which so came to dominate and even to personify the battlefields of World War One, was a fairly primitive device when general war began in August 1914.  Machine guns of all armies were largely of the heavy variety and decidedly ill-suited to portability for use by rapidly advancing infantry troops.  Each weighed somewhere in the 30kg-60kg range - often without their mountings, carriages and supplies.

The Machine Gun in 1914

The 1914 machine gun, usually positioned on a flat tripod, would require a gun crew of four to six operators.  In theory they could fire 400-600 small-calibre rounds per minute, a figure that was to more than double by the war's end, with rounds fed via a fabric belt or a metal strip.
The reality however was that these early machine guns would rapidly overheat and become inoperative without the aid of cooling mechanisms; they were consequently fired in short rather than sustained bursts.  Cooling generally took one of two forms: water cooled and, increasingly as the war developed, air cooled.  Water jackets would provided for the former (which held around one gallon of liquid) and air vents would be built into the machine gun for the latter.
Water cooled machine guns would still overheat relatively quickly (sometimes within two minutes), with the consequence that large supplies of water would need to be on hand in the heat of a battle - and, when these ran out, it was not unknown for a machine gun crew to solve the problem by urinating into the jacket.
Whether air or water cooled, machine guns still jammed frequently, especially in hot conditions or when used by inexperienced operators.
Consequently machine guns would often be grouped together to maintain a constant defensive position.
Estimates of their equivalent, accurate, rifle firepower varied, with some estimating a single machine gun to be worth as many as 60-100 rifles: a more consensual figure is around 80, still an impressively high figure.

British Army Rejection

High enough indeed to make the British army's dismissal of the potential worth of the device in the early 1900s all the more difficult to understand.  Hiram Maxim, who designed the machine gun which bore his name in 1884, first offered use of the machine to Britain.  Although rapid-firing weapons, such as the 0.50-inch calibre Gatling Gun (invented in 1862), existed many years prior to Maxim's invention, all required some form of manual intervention, e.g. hand cranking.
Unfortunately for Maxim the British army high command could see no real use for the oil-cooled machine gun he demonstrated to them in 1885; other officers even regarded the weapon as an improper form of warfare.
Not so the German army which quickly produced a version of Maxim's invention (the Maschinengewehr 08) in large quantities at a Spandau arsenal; by the time war broke out in August 1914 the Germans had 12,000 at their disposal, a number which eventually ballooned to 100,000.
In contrast the British and French had access to a mere few hundred equivalents when war began.

Simple Design

In designing his machine gun, Hiram Maxim utilised a simple concept.
The gas produced by the explosion of powder in each machine gun cartridge created a recoil which served to continuously operate the machine gun mechanism.  No external power was needed.  His initial design, which was water cooled and belt fed, allowed for a theoretical rate of fire of up to 600 rounds per minute (half that number in practice).  It was heavy however, weighing in at 62kg.

German Enthusiasm

As already noted the Germans quickly grasped the potential importance of machine guns on the battlefield.  From the outset the German army demonstrated the value of the machine gun by creating separate machine gun companies to support infantry battalions.
The British however did not create their Machine Gun Corps until October 1915; until this time the few machine guns available were attached in sections to individual battalions.  A mere two guns were allocated to each infantry battalion in 1914.

Superiority of Defensive Warfare Technology

When established in fixed strong-points sited specifically to cover potential enemy attack routes, the machine gun proved a fearsome defensive weapon.  Enemy infantry assaults upon such positions invariably proved highly costly.
The French in particular found to their cost that the technology of defensive warfare was more advanced than that of offensive warfare.  The French pre-war military blueprint, Plan XVII, was founded upon a fundamental assumption of an 'offensive spirit', one which envisaged a rapid war of movement.
Early commanders, such as Charles Lanrezac, were dismissed for apparent failures in their implementation of the offensive spirit.  Time was to vindicate Lanrezac's doubts.
The British similarly found to their repeated cost the futility of massed infantry attacks against well-entrenched defensive positions protected by machine gun cover.  The first day of the Somme Offensive amply illustrated this, although the lesson appeared to be lost to the British high command.  On the opening day of the offensive the British suffered a record number of single day casualties, 60,000, the great majority lost under withering machine gun fire.

The Machine Gun as an Offensive Weapon

Understandably most historical accounts of the First World War have tended to emphasise the defensive strengths of the machine gun.  Throughout the war efforts were made to produce an infantry assault version, such as the Lewis Light Machine Gun, although these efforts were generally unsatisfactory.
Although lighter at around 12kg they were still considered too heavy and bulky for rapidly advancing infantry.  Attempts to transport light machine guns by wheeled carriages or pack animals were ultimately unsuccessful: the infantry invariably outpaced such methods.
By 1918 however one-man portable machine guns (including the formidable Bergmann MP18 submachine gun) were put to some use (each weighing 9-14kg), although maintaining sufficient ammunition supplies remained a difficulty.
Although often not truly portable light machine guns were more readily transported on roads or flat ground by armoured cars.
As the war developed machine guns were adapted for use on tanks on broken ground, particularly on the Western Front (where the majority of machine guns were deployed).
Light machine guns were adopted too for incorporation into aircraft from 1915 onwards, for example the Vickers, particularly with the German adoption of interrupter equipment, which enabled the pilot to fire the gun through the aircraft's propeller blades.
In response to the increasing success of machine guns mounted on aircraft it was perhaps inevitable that machine guns should similarly be developed as anti-aircraft devices (in France and Italy), sometimes mounted on vehicles.  Similarly machine guns began to be added to warships as a useful addition to naval armaments.
For more information on specific models follow the links below:

Machine Gun	Notes
Hiram Maxim	Inventor of Machine Gun
Benet-Mercie (Hotchkiss)	France
Bergmann MB 15 nA	Germany
Bergmann MP18	Germany
Browning	U.S.
Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR)	U.S.
Chauchat	France
Colt-Browning	U.S.
Fiat-Revelli	Italy
Hotchkiss	France
Lewis	U.S.
Madsen	Denmark
Marlin	U.S.
Maschinengewehr	Germany
Maxim	Germany
Parabellum	Germany
Pulemyot Maxima	Russia
Schwarzlose	Austria-Hungary
Spandau	Germany
St Etienne	France
Vickers	British
Villar Perosa	Italian

Magnesium: The Stress Reliever

Magnesium is the fourth most abundant mineral in your body, a necessary co-factor for hundreds of enzymes, and the most critical mineral of all for coping with stress. Stress-related diseases which run rampant through modern society, like heart attacks and high blood pressure, are often accompanied by magnesium deficiency. Unfortunately, most Americans consume diets that fail to meet the government's RDA for magnesium, and magnesium intake is even lower than average among people who develop heart disease. The best food sources of magnesium are vegetables like buckwheat (kasha), mature lima beans, navy beans, kidney beans, green beans, soy beans (including tofu), blackeyed peas, broccoli, spinach, Swiss chard, oats, whole barley, millet, bananas, blackberries, dates, dried figs, mangoes, watermelon, almonds, Brazil nuts, cashews, hazel nuts, shrimp, and tuna.
When you are chronically stressed, you can become magnesium deficient even if you eat these foods regularly. The complex relationship between magnesium and stress explains why many of the patients I see require magnesium supplements, because even a nutritious diet does not correct their magnesium deficiency.
If you are like most people, when you are exposed to the stress of contin-uous loud noise, for example, you become irrita-ble, easily fatigued and lose concentration. Your blood pressure may increase as the level of adrenalin, a stress hormone, in-creases in your blood. Under conditions of mental or physical stress, magnesium is released from your blood cells and goes into the blood plasma, from where it is excreted into the urine. Chronic stress depletes your body of magnesium. The more stressed you are, the greater the loss of magnesium. The lower your magnesium level to begin with, the more reactive to stress you become and the higher your level of adrenalin in stressful situations. Higher adrenalin causes greater loss of magnesium from cells. Administering magnesium as a nutritional supplement breaks this vicious cycle by raising blood magnesium levels and buffering the response to stress, building your resistance.
Personality has a marked effect on the stress-magnesium cycle. A study done in Paris found that stress-induced depletion of magnesium was much greater for people who show the "Type A", competitive, heart-disease prone behavior pattern than for their less competitive colleagues. Dr. Bella Altura, a physiologist at the State University of New York, has proposed that depletion of magnesium among Type A indiviudals is the main reason why Type A individuals are at increased risk of heart attacks.
It appears that the body's magnesium economy is an integral part of the stress response system. When stressed for any reason, the body's hormonal reponse causes an outpouring of magnesium from cells into plasma. This outpouring is a bit like taking magnesium by injection, except the source is internal. The effect of the sudden increase in magnesium is both energizing and calming. Magnesium is needed to burn sugar for energy; it also calms the excitation of cells produced by the stress-induced release of calcium. If there is insufficient dietary magnesium, or if there is insufficient rest in between episodes of stress, the body's magnesium stores are slowly depleted. The hormonal response to stress disintegrates. The plasma magnesium does not elevate in response to stress as it should, so that the energizing/calming effect of magnesium is not present to counter the nerve-jangling effects of adrenalin and other stress hormones. Consequently, the disorganizing effects of stress are intensified and coping is impaired. Higher blood pressure, abnormalities of your heartbeat and an increased risk of heart attacks or of angina (cardiac pain) may be one reult.

Why Quit Smoking?

Why Quit Smoking?

Beyond Insomnia: Your Favorite Sleep Hormone Is Now Used in Cancer Therapy

You probably know it as a supplement that can help you sleep or overcome jet lag. Certainly, this hormone has been used safely in small doses for dozens of years for these purposes. As numerous people — and I — can attest to, from 0.5 to 3 mg of melatonin taken half an hour before bedtime can turn a restless night into a restful one. And it can save you a day or more of fatigue if it's used before and after long plane rides. But melatonin does much more, especially in higher quantities. It’s being used to protect against cancer, and to enhance the effectiveness of cancer treatments.
This hormone regulates the patterns of wakefulness and sleepiness that coincide with light and darkness known as circadian rhythm. Melatonin levels should be highest at night and lowest during the day. But light shuts down your body’s production, so if you're in a well-lighted room late at night you may not be able to make enough melatonin to sleep well.
The melatonin/cancer connection
Exposure to light at night not only affects your ability to sleep during the day, it also increases your risk for cancer. Studies show that women who work late night shifts have an increased risk for getting breast cancer. And if you work late at night for just three nights a month over a period of 15 years, your risk for colon cancer escalates.
For a long time, we couldn't explain this phenomenon. Recently, however, a group of circadian-clock control genes were discovered that regulate the growth of normal cells and cancer cells. When these genes mutate, they cause a spontaneous outbreak of cancer. Why do they cause specific cancers? We don’t know yet.
Circadian rhythm organization
Cancer cells multiply at certain times of the day, so it stands to reason that cancer therapies should be timed with cancer cell growth. Yet, cancer treatments are given at times that are most convenient for doctors and patients — not at times when a hormone, nutrient, or medication would work the best. This just doesn’t make sense.
We have some studies that support giving cancer treatments according to circadian rhythms. One study showed that there was less toxicity and a better response from drug therapy in patients with colon cancer who were given their medication at night. Combine traditional treatments with melatonin, and the benefits increase dramatically. Let's take a look at some good studies on this subject.
A group of patients with advanced cancer were given 10 mg of melatonin at night for at least two months along with their other medications. They lost less weight and their disease progressed more slowly than those on the same therapy who didn’t take melatonin.
Melatonin added to prescribed medications was also associated with survival for more than a year in people with brain cancer, melanoma, lung cancer, and untreatable glioblastoma. The combination worked better than the medications alone.
But that's not all
Melatonin is an aromatase inhibitor. Aromatase means that it reduces the ability of male hormones (adrogens), such as testosterone, to turn into estrogens. This means that melatonin has anti-estrogenic effects. When you combine it with tamoxifen, it actually enhances tamoxifen’s effects. Melatonin also boosts the effectiveness of interferon on kidney cancers.
I'm particularly impressed with how this hormone protects healthy cells from toxins, such as chemotherapy, radiation, and other drugs. Perhaps this activity explains why it has proven to be so useful in people with untreatable cancers.
In several studies, there was less muscle wasting, less weakness, and a longer survival when patients were given 20 mg of melatonin at night along with either chemotherapy or supportive care.
What does this mean for you?
I'm not suggesting that you start taking high doses of melatonin even though there a number of supplement companies that sell it in 20 mg tablets. Melatonin is a hormone, and while I think that up to 3 mg a day is safe to take, I think that higher amounts should be monitored by your doctor, especially since there are interactions between melatonin and some pharmaceutical drugs. You don’t want the melatonin to increase the activity of other drugs without your doctor’s knowledge.
You might, however, show him or her this article and suggest they read some of the studies I've cited. Melatonin could be an appropriate nutrient to take for women who have hormone-related breast cancers, for people with inoperable cancers, and to protect you if you’re at a particularly high risk. This is a subject that's worth exploring.
Cos, S., et al. e-pub ahead of print, Int J Cancer, 2005 August 3.
Lissoni, P., "Is there a role for melatonin in supportive care?" Support Care Cancer, 2002 March; 10(2).
Mahmoud, F., et al. "The therapeutic application of melatonin in supportive care and palliative medicine," Am J Hosp Palliat Care, 2005 July-August; 22(4).

10 Tips on Vacations and Your Health

1. Even the most spontaneous getaway needs some basic planning and preparation. If you are visiting a new place, or even one not so new, a good travel guide will give you information on things like available transportation, and the hours and prices of attractions. It should also include important phone numbers and places to get help in an emergency. Or find a friend who knows the area for some tips. Learn about what interests you, like the best hikes or restaurants. And enjoy the adventure of experiencing your own discoveries.
2. Put together a travel kit. Include some water, antibacterial soap, electrolyte and nutritional support (protein bars, supplements, and powdered nutrients that you can add to water), sunscreen, and first aid supplies. Obviously, if you are traveling by car, you can take more goods, such as extra snack/emergency food and water. When traveling by air, you?ll need to make your supplies more compact, but I always have water, a mini-flashlight, a few snacks such as a couple of apples and raw almonds, some simple first aid supplies, a variety of supplements and herbal remedies, and more. Yet, don?t overdo it as you?re likely to have to carry it all around.
3. Take care of your personal needs and of course, those of your traveling companions as well. Match activities with your energy and fitness level. Listen to your body. Give yourself the extra time needed to truly rest and relax. Let yourself sleep more than you do at home. Most of us are sleep deprived. Give yourself sufficient space to acclimate to changes in weather, altitude, or language.
4. Drink plenty of water; hydration is a key. This is especially important if you are visiting a place that is hotter or drier than your usual environment. Don't wait until you get thirsty to drink; you?re already dehydrated then (Review my June 2002 Tips for more on Water). Avoid beverages with added sugar, caffeine or alcohol, as these can contribute to dehydration. After exercise and sweating, drink a cup or two of water and add a pack of nutrients, such as Emergen-C (found in any health food store), or some replenishing electrolyte fluid.
5. Use sunscreen (natural is best) and remember to reapply after swimming or strenuous exercise. Invest in a natural sunscreen, one without many chemicals and that is more nourishing to the skin. If it?s really hot or you?ll be out very long, wear a hat. Also, in summertime, we can get quite dry, so applying some oils or lotions to our skin will nourish your cells and tissues and protect your skin.
6. Take appropriate safety precautions, especially when trying new activities. Things like elbow and kneepads, life vests, and other safety equipment can prevent accidents that truly can ruin your vacation enjoyment. Watch out for poison oak and ivy on hikes, check yourself and your kids for ticks after a hike, and have some protection against biting bugs or slithering snakes.
7. Avoid contaminated food or drinks, which are the major cause of stomach distress while traveling. This is especially true if you are traveling outside the US, but bad food and water can happen anywhere. To be safe, if it is not boiled, well cooked, or peeled, don't eat it. If you do fall victim to traveler's diarrhea, let your stomach rest and be sure to stay hydrated. Use probiotics (acidophilus and other healthy bacteria) both to prevent intestinal problems as well as to treat them. Some other GI protection can be gained by taking additional nutritional hydrochloric acid when you eat, which acidifies the digestive tract and reduces the ability for bad bugs to take hold. Digestive enzymes also help digest microbes to which we are exposed.
8. Know about your destination, at least the basics, before you get there. Don't keep money in a shoulder bag or obvious wallet. Exercise caution when using automatic teller machines and other places where you will be seen with cash. Be aware of your surroundings, and have an evacuation plan in case of emergencies. Also, learn about the best Foods where you are. Enjoy Nature?s bounty wherever you travel (in the US and Europe)?fresh seasonal fruits and vegetables at their organic best. Many cities have a downtown farmer?s market; ask the locals where they would go for the best and freshest foods.
9. Nutritional Supplements can be helpful. All the anti-oxidant nutrients are helpful for the stress of travel?vitamins C and E, beta-carotene, and selenium are the main ones. Others are alpha-lipoic acid, pycnogenol, and L-cysteine. I use B-vitamins as tablets or sublingual drops as well for balancing travel stress. Also, it may be helpful to have some spirulina or blue-green algae tablets for energy support. Store your supplements out of the sun or in the cooler. Herbs like Siberian ginseng may also help you deal with the stress of travel. When traveling across time zones, melatonin taken at your new bedtime can help reset your biologic time clock. Even low doses can be effective, so easy does it. Nutrient packets with extra B-vitamins and minerals are also very helpful for travel and exercise replenishment. Put a pack in your water.
10. Inner Healing & De-Stressing ? Prepare for the enjoyment of outdoors. Plan a fun trip of hiking, camping, playing at the river, or a few days resting at the ocean. Rekindling your Earth connection has benefits that last beyond this season, continuing to enrich the whole of your life. Relax and breathe. Enjoy yourself. Practice letting your stresses go, leaving them at home or the office when you?re on vacation. Find a great book to read on your trip. Get out in Nature. Be aware of vacation burnout, so build some time into every day for rest and replenishment. This might entail letting yourself just sit for awhile watching the clouds, the surf, listening to music, or reading a good book. Try being a wave or becoming the sky. I love an affirmation used for relaxation when I lie down, especially in a meadow, "My mind is the sky, and the clouds are my thoughts; I just watch them float by."

History of Firearms

Since the introduction of the flintlock musket in the 17th century, military small arms have gone through a series of significant changes.

Muskets

Puckle Gun - 1718
In 1718, James Puckle of London, England, demonstrated his new invention, the "Puckle Gun," a tripod-mounted, single-barreled flintlock gun fitted with a multishot revolving cylinder. This weapon fired nine shots per minute at a time when the standard soldier's musket could be loaded and fired but three times per minute. Puckle demonstrated two versions of the basic design. One weapon, intended for use against Christian enemies, fired conventional round bullets, while the second variant, designed to be used against the Muslim Turks, fired square bullets, which were believed to cause more severe and painful wounds than spherical projectiles. The "Puckle Gun" failed to attract investors and never achieved mass production or sales to the British armed forces. One newspaper of the period observed following the business venture's failure that "those are only wounded who hold shares therein." According to the Patent Office of the United Kingdom, "In the reign of Queen Anne, the law officers of the Crown established as a condition of patent that the inventor must in writing describe the invention and the manner in which it works." James Puckle's 1718 patent for a gun was one of the first to provide a description.

Revolvers

• History of the Colt Revolver
  Samuel Colt invented the first revolver - named after its revolving cylinder. He was issued a U.S. patent in 1836 for the Colt firearm equipped with a revolving cylinder containing five or six bullets with an innovative cocking device. See also - Samuel Colt and the Revolver

Rifles

• The breech-loading rifle was invented by Captain Patrick Ferguson of Pitfours, Scotland.
• John Moses Browning - Winchester Rifle
  John Moses Browning was the prolific gun designer who invented the Winchester rifle (30/30), the pump shotgun, and the Colt 45 automatic. He is best known for his automatic pistols and was the first one to invent the slide, which encloses the barrel of a pistol and the firing mechanism.
• John Moses Browning
• Modern Assault Rifles - M16 History
  The history of the modern assault rifle begins with the German Sturmgewehr used during WW2, the first rifle that could fire a medium size bullet at high rates of fire. In response the U.S. military began developing their own assault rifle, the result was the M16 assault rifle, first issued to American Soldiers in Vietnam in 1968 and designed by Eugene Stoner, a Marine Corps Veteran.
• John Garand - M1 Semiautomatic Rifle
  Canadian, John Garand invented the M1 semiautomatic rifle in 1934.
• The Johnson Rifle
  The Johnson Model 1941 Rifle one of the most innovative rifles of its time period. The Johson rifle was invented by Melvin M. Johnson Jr.
• Samuel Gardiner
  Samuel Gardiner, Jr. received a U.S. Patent in 1863 on a "high explosive rifle bullet" in .54, .58, and .69 calibers. Fused to explode 1 1/4 seconds after firing, it ensured that any soldier hit by the projectile with a range of 400 yards faced the danger of the bullet exploding within the impact wound. The U.S. Government purchased 110,000 rounds of such ammunition for issue during the Civil War. Criticizing the use of similar ammunition by the Confederates, General Ulysses S. Grant complained that "their use is barbarous because they produce increased suffering without any increased advantage to using them."
• Rifle Scopes
  A rifle scope is a refractor telescope used on a rifle. In 1880, August Fiedler (Stronsdorf), forestry commissioner of Prince Reuss, managed to build the first telescopic sight that really did work.

Machine Guns

• Gatling Gun - 1861
  Doctor Richard Gatling patented his design of the "Gatling Gun", a six-barreled weapon capable of firing a (then) phenomenal 200 rounds per minute.
• Maxim Machine Gun - 1885
  In 1881, a friend of Hiram Maxim, the American inventor, told him: "If you wanted to make a lot of money, invent something that will enable these Europeans to cut each other's throats with. Hiram Maxim was born in Sangersville, Maine in 1840 and was the inventor of the Maxim Machine Gun and the Maxim Silencer.
• Thompson Submachine Gun - Tommy Gun
  The Thompson submachine gun or Tommy gun was invented by General John T. Thompson, it was the first hand held machine gun. Thompson was driven with the thought of creating a hand held machinegun that would help end the First World War, However, "the first shipment of prototype guns destined for Europe arrived at the docks in New York city on November 11, 1918, the day the War ended."

KA-50 Black Shark

The KA-50 Black Shark (refered to by NATO as 'Hokum') is a sophisticated Russian-built attack helicopter that is in service in small numbers (8 actively deployed) with the Russian army.
The KA-50 is unusual for an attack helicopter in that it is crewed by a single pilot/gunner, making it a very demanding aircraft to fly and fight in. A two-seater version, the KA-52, has also been developed.

Whilst the MI-28N Havoc will be Russia's primary gunship, the KA-50 will carry out the role of Special Forces support.

KA50 BLACK SHARK FEATURES

• contra-rotating co-axial rotors
• zero-zero ejection seat
• jam-proof laser designator for the Vikhr missiles
• fire-control system shares target data with other KA-50s on the battlefield as well as compatible ground units
• flare launchers for protection against IR-homing missiles
• computer-assisted flight & navigation management system eases pilot workload

The Black Shark is designed to survive on the battlefield. The pilot is encased in armor designed to resist armor-penetrating rounds up to 12.7mm. The KA-50's rotors can take repeated hits from small arms fire. If the armor fails, a rocket-powered ejection system is installed for the pilot's emergency use.

The KA-50's double-stacked main rotor design eliminates the need for a tail rotor which makes the helicopter highly maneuverable at high speeds.
Armaments are fitted to hardpoints on two wings / pylons tipped with countermeasure pods. Up to 12 supersonic laser-guided vikhr anti-tank missiles can be carried, each with a range of 8km. A range of unguided rocket pods, mines and bomblets can also be fitted. The KA-50 carried a 30mm cannon beneath its nose. Firing either armor-piercing or explosive incendiary rounds, the 2A42 cannon can make short work of both armored and soft targets. Due to its contr-rotating stacked rotors, the KA-50 can point the weapon systems towards a target area whilst the helicopter continues moving along another axis. For this reason, the Black Shark's 30mm cannon only has a limited field of fire, unlike the turret-mounted guns on most other gunships.
The KA-50 has seen action against guerilla's in Chechnya,

KA-50 Attack Helicopter Specifications

The KA-50 carries a wide range of ordinance into combat

Crew	1 Pilot / Gunner
Engines	2 x 2,200 Horse Power TV3-117VMA
Dimensions	L - 15.9 m W (wing span) - 7.3 m H - 4.9 m
Weights	7,692 kg (empty) 10,800 kg (max loudout)
Max Speed	310 km/h
Range	460 km
Armament	2A42 30mm Cannon (460 rounds of high-fragmentation and explosive incendiary) 12 x Vikhr supersonic laser-guided anti-tank missiles AA missiles unguided rockets
Avionics	inertial navigation system (INS) autopilot head-up display (HUD) FLIR (forward-looking infrared) terrain-following radar RWS (radar warning system) chaff /flare dispensors electronic jamming systems

KA-50 Blackshark - the stacked rotor design eliminates the need for a tail rotor and allows the KA-50 to manouver at high speeds.

History Of the Helicopter Gunship

Until the Vietnam conflict, military helicopters were mostly used for evacuating wounded troops. They were used extensively for this purpose doing the Korean War. Other roles included limited troop transport and observation.
The US involvement in Vietnam saw an increase in the use of helicopters as troop transports, often flying missions in which they came under heavy fire. The need for heavily armed helicopters soon became apparent. The Huey UH-1C troop transport was kitted out with machine guns and 2.75in FFAR rockets which were mounted on stub-wings attached to the chopper's fuselage. Other gunship configurations that were considered included modified CH-47 Chinooks (ACH-47s) armed with multiple guns, cannons, rockets and grenade launchers although these proved to be too cumbersome for use in the field.
In 1967 the US Army fielded that AH-1 Cobra, a dedicated gunship. Based around the UH-1 powerplant, the cobra had a much thinner profile, increased armor, speed and firepower. It proved to be highly effective in action against the NVA and Viet Cong.

MI-8 troop transport coverted to a gunship with the addition of rocket pods

The Soviets went through a similar evolution in their development of helicopter gunships as their US rivals. Starting with adding rockets and machine guns to MI-8 troop transports, they soon progressed to a dedicated design - the Mil MI-24 Hind. Both of these gunships would be used in many a battle in various third world conflicts, mostly in the infantry support role.
With the gunship concept now battle-proven, more advanced attack helicopters were developed in the late 70s/early 80s. The US fielded the Ah-64A Apache and upgraded AH-1 Cobras whilst the Italians developed the A129 Mangusta. These attack helicopters were designed with a confrontation with the Soviet Union in mind. It was hoped that their advanced avionics and anti-tank missiles would counteract the Warsaw Pact's overwhelming numeric superiority on the battlefield.
When the Soviet Union crumbled at the end of the 80s, the need for gunships may have been in doubt. 1991's Gulf War put any doubts to rest as fleets of Apaches and Cobras decimated Iraq armor in the open desert. Once again the concept had proven itself.
The terrorist attacks of September 11th, 2001 and the resulting war in Afghanistan took helicopter gunships into battle once again. The Apache, already proven in the anti-armor role now distinguished itself in the infantry support role as Coalition forces would frequently call the gunships in to attack Taleban forces.
The US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003 saw the Apache helicopter deployed once again although this time the battles were a little less one-sided as before. When the Apaches went into combat over populated areas with lots of cover for ground troops to lurk in they were less effective than when over the open desert. Coordinated ground fire downed or severely damaged several Apaches causing them to abort missions. Despite these setbacks, when deployed against Republican Guard divisions positioned out in the open, the Apaches once again proved to be a devestating weapons plafform.

Accuracy International L96A1 / Arctic Warfare sniper rifle (UK)

British Army L96A1 sniper rifle
Accuracy International Arctic Warfare (AI AW 7,62) 7.62x51 sniper rifle

Accuracy International Arctic Warfare Folding (AI AWF 7,62) 7.62x51 sniper rifle, with buttstock folded

 Accuracy International Arctic Warfare Magnum Folding (AI AWM F 300WM) .300 Winchester Magnum / 7.62x63 sniper rifle

 Accuracy International Arctic Warfare Police (AI AWP 7,62) 7.62x51 sniper rifle
photo: Zack Smith
Caliber: L96, AW, AW Police, AW Folding: 7.62x51mm NATO (.308 win); Super Magnum: .338 Lapua (8.60x70mm), .300 Win Mag, 7mm Rem Mag
Operation: Bolt Action
Length: 1270mm
Barrel lenght: 686mm (.338 Lapua), 660mm (.300 and 7mm)
Weight: 6.8kg empty without telescope
Magazine Capacity: 5 round box magazine
Maximum Effective Range: ca. 800 meters for 7.62mm NATO variants, 1100+ meters for Magnum variants

In early 1980's British Army started the search for the replacement of the aging L42 Enfield sniper rifles. Main compettitors were british companies Parker-Hale with their Model 82 bolt action rifle, and Accuracy International, with their PM rifle. Eventually, PM rifle won the competition and was accepted by British Army under the designation of L96.
One of the most notorious features of the PM rifle was design of the stock. Instead of the solid polymer or wooden stock, PM / L96 rifle used hollow polymer stock, made from two halves and assembled around aluminium bedding block, that extends through entire stock lenght. L96 also was equipped with backup iron sights.
In mid-1980s Swedish armed forces began their own quest for the new sniper rifle, which could survive cold and harsh nordic environments. The AI again become the winner in this race with improved L96 design, named "Arctic Warfare". In 1988 Swedish forces adopted AW rifle in 7.62mm NATO chambering under the designation of PSG 90. British Army, in its turn, also adopted this improved design under the designation of L96A1, as well as many other militaries and Law Enforcement agencies around the world. In 1998, the Bundeswehr (Germany Army) also adopted the AW Super Magnum rifle chambered in .300 Winchester magnum (German caliber designation is 7.62x67mm) as Scharfschutzengewehre (sniper rifle - german) G22.

Built by Accuracy International of Portsmuth, England, this line of rifles is among the best in the World of sniper rifles today. This rifle can shot less than 2" (51mm) groups at the distances of 600 yards (550m), using boat-tail match ammunition. Arctic Warfare is a line of 5 rifles. Original Arctc Warfare was designed for the British military. It gained its designation by special anti-icing features, allowing sniping operations to be carried out under Arctic conditions as low as -40C (-104F)! Other models are Police (AWP), Suppressed (AWS), Folding (AWF) and Super Magnum (AW SM). Three first rifles designed for 7.62mm NATO ammunition, while Super Magnum can be chambered in .338 Lapua Magnum, .300 Winchester Magnum and 7mm Remington Magnum. AW has a 26" (660mm) barrel, AWP has 24" (609mm). AW SM barrels available in lentths from 24" (609mm) to 27" (686mm). The standart scopes supplied by Accuracy International are Smidt&Bender 3-12X variable or the Leupold Mark 4 fixed 10X scope

Russia (incl. Former U.S.S.R)

Russian Dragunov SVD

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Caliber:	Russian 7.62x54mm Rimmed
Operation:	gas, semi-automatic
Capacity:	10 round detachable box magazine
Weight:	9.5lb (4.31kg) empty with telescope
Length:	48.2 in (122.5 cm)
Barrel Length:	24 in (62 cm)
Rifling:	4 grooves, 1:10 right hand twist
Max Rate of Fire:	30 RPM
Aimed Rate of Fire:	3-5 RPM
Scope Type:	PSO-1 with IR detection capability
Scope Data:	24mm objective lens, 4x, 6 degree field of view
Exit Pupil Measurement:	6mm
Compatible Passive Night Scopes:	NSP-3: 2.7x, 7 degree field of view range of approx 300 yds PGN-1: 3.4x, 5.7 degree field of view range of 400-500 yds

The SVD (Snayperskaya Vintovka Dragunova)-Dragunov Sniping Rifle was the first rifle designed from scratch as a sniper rifle, and was introduced in the 1950's. It has very limited similarities to the Kalashnikov series of rifles. The SVD can be expected to shoot 2 MOA with quality ammo. I have some personal experience with an original SVD (circa late 1970's). While the weapon was a bit crude when it comes to workmanship, it still functioned flawlessly. We shot extensively out to 900 meters. The rifle is extremely deadly, even with cheap surplus ammo, out to about 600 meters. After that, your pressed to hit consistantly. We easily were maintaining sub 2 MOA. The SVD is not a true sniper rifle in todays terms, but it performs exceptionally well for what it was designed for, a weapon to extend the range of the average rifle squad.

Russian SV-98

Image courtesy of Valery Shilin's Gun Club

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Caliber	7.62x54mmR or 7.62x51mm NATO (.308 Win)
Length	50" (1270mm)
Weight	13.64 lbs (6.2 kg)
Barrel Length	25.6 inches (650mm)
Lands and Grooves	4 RH
Twist, Right Hand	1:12.6" (320mm)
Trigger Weight	3.3 to 4.4 pounds
Magazine Capacity	Detachable 10 round magazine
Sight	PKS-07 7x
Stock	Laminated wood or molded fibreglass with adjustable cheek and Length of Pull.

There has been a long standing request by Russian snipers to upgrade their standard sniper rifle from the SVD. There is nothing wrong with the SVD for what it was designed for. But when the snipers need a precision long range rifle, the SVD does not perform up to the modern sniper rifle standard. A formal request for a new bolt action sniper rifle was made, and in 1998 Vladimir Stronskiy designed and delivered to the Arms R&D center of the Izhmash OJSC the Snaiperskaya Vintovka (sniper rifle), model 1998. (SV-98). The new rifle uses a cold hammer forged heavy barrel and cold hammer forged action. The barrel is freefloating and there are three locking lugs on the bolt. There is a flash suppressor (AK style) and also SVD aux sites. An integral scope mount is on the reciever, and the standard optics sitting on top is the PKS-07, which is a 7x scope, slightly more then the PSO-1 on the SVD. The fibreglass stock is available as an option upon order. The barrels are threaded for a specially designed 23db suppressor that requires the use of subsonic ammunition. The magazine is plastic.
Shooting handloads, the rifle was able to achieve .85 MOA in 7.62x54R form, and .62 MOA in 7.62x51 NATO. There seems to be some minor extrator problems on the 7.62x54R because of the rim on that cartridge, though the 308 version doesn't suffer the same problems. The rifle was developed by IZHMASH (Izhevsk Machinebuilding Plant) and based on "proven" sporting rifle Record-CISM. The SV-98 in 7.62X54R has been "field rated" by the Russian Spez-Natz at 1.15 MOA @ 100 meters distance. The true limiting factor is the ammunition the Russian Military uses for there sniper weapons. The only sniper units that recieve quality ammunition are those of the Spetz Natz. Indipendant testing by Vladimir Gruzchev of the Spez Natz weaponry experimenting unit has stated that with high quality ammunition it can aquire .75 MOA at best. Because the performance is not as good as the military would like, there has been several complaints from the head of the military arms and evaluation center in the Russian Military that the rifle was adopted for political gain for a certain "un-known" person. As it is, the SV-98 is being used by various Russian law enforcement and counter-terrorist forces.

Mosin-Nagant 1891/30 Sniper File Photo of 1891/30 Sniper with PU Scope
Caliber:	7.62x54mm R
Barrel Length:	28.7" (729 MM)
Barrel Details:	4 Lands and Grooves, Right hand twist
Empty Weight:	11.3 pounds (5.136 KG) empty less sling
Overall Length:	48.5" (1232 MM)
Magazine:	5 Round internal box
Stock:	Standard issue 1891/30 wood stock
Here is another installment for the classic sniper rifles. The model 1891/30 Sniper is based on the standard issue 1891/30 rifle from the former USSR. These rifles were used for much of the 20th century. To create the sniper version of these rifles, high quality examples of the 1891/30 were pulled off of the production line. They specifically looked for high quality barrels. They took these hand picked rifles and then turned the bolts down for operation while using a scope. They mounted a scope; both the PV (4x) and PU (3.5x) versions were used. The PU was preferred and used on most of the sniper versions. There was no bayonet issued and the foresight was raised 1mm, which allowed the open sites to be used out to 600 meters. The trigger was also lightened to 4.4-5.3 lbs (2-2.4 kg). The 1891/30 Sniper proved to be an exceptional sniper rifle, perhaps even the best of WWII. The rifles were mass-produced, with as many as 330,000 of the sniper variants being produced between 1941 and 1943. Of course, due to these types of production numbers, some problems arose. There were numerous complaints about the triggers, they were not adjustable, and so what came with the rifle was what you were stuck with, so hopefully it was adjusted nicely from the factory. Another complaint was with the stock, as some of the wood used during some of the high production times was not high quality and warped a lot during changes in weather. The rifles were also long and heavy which made them a bit awkward in the field. But, despite all that, these rifles were very accurate. Average accuracy was about 1.5 MOA with some examples shooting WELL below 1 MOA. This level of accuracy is amazing for a rifle produced during wartime conditions and in these numbers. It is believed that many German snipers in WWII would use captured 1891/30's as their personal sniper rifles, over their Mauser 98K's. The 1891/30 Sniper rifle was originally developed in the early 20's (on the Dragoon rifle) and used in the 30's (as the 1891/30). Like many countries did before and during the war, the USSR was switching over to semi-auto combat rifles, the SVT-40, and a sniper variant was produced of this rifle. But accuracy was not up to par and many complaints over the SVT-40 sniper rifle prompted the return of the 1891/30, which performed very well throughout the war. The rifle stayed in service until 1963 when it was replaced in the USSR military by the SVD. The 1891/30 Sniper's stayed in service until the 70's with many communist countries. It actually served with the NVA during the Vietnam Conflict as well. This rifle has an exceptional service history and performance history and deserves to be placed among the greatest of all service built sniper rifles.